Key Ideas
1. Human beings are naturally free and equal
No person possesses an inherent political title to command another.
2. Natural law governs pre-political life
Freedom remains bounded by duties not to harm others in life, liberty or possessions.
3. Everyone initially holds executive power
Individuals may restrain and punish violations of natural law before common government exists.
4. Unjust force creates a state of war
War is defined by wrongful designs and coercion, not merely by the absence of government.
5. Liberty is not licence
Self-direction does not include an arbitrary right to destroy oneself or other people.
6. Each person owns his or her labour
Labour establishes a special claim when joined to resources initially held in common.
7. Original appropriation has limits
Nothing should spoil, and enough and as good should remain available to others.
8. Money enables durable accumulation
Consent to currency permits inequalities that immediate use and spoilage would otherwise restrict.
9. Parental power is temporary stewardship
Parents educate and protect children until reason enables mature self-government.
10. Political society requires common judgement
Citizens transfer private enforcement to public institutions capable of deciding disputes.
11. Consent is the source of legitimate government
Force, ancestry and paternal status cannot substitute for political authorisation.
12. Majority rule enables collective action
Those forming one community accept a decision procedure through which it can act.
13. Government protects property broadly understood
Its end encompasses life, liberty and estate rather than material holdings alone.
14. Legislative power is a trust
Law-making authority must pursue the public good through known and standing rules.
15. Taxation requires consent
Government may not take a person’s property merely through arbitrary will.
16. Governmental powers have distinct functions
Legislative, executive and federative responsibilities address law-making, execution and foreign affairs.
17. Prerogative is accountable discretion
Action beyond detailed law is justified only by genuine public benefit.
18. Conquest is not consent
Military victory cannot alone create rightful authority over innocent people.
19. Tyranny uses public force for private ends
Any ruler exceeds right when personal will replaces authorised law.
20. Betrayal of trust dissolves government
When rulers systematically destroy lawful institutions, the people may establish new ones.