Summary
Book I: The city and the household
Every association aims at a good, and the political community aims at the most comprehensive good. Household, village and city develop in an order that reaches self-sufficiency. The city comes into existence for life and continues for living well.
Human beings are political animals because speech communicates judgements about justice and advantage. Aristotle distinguishes political rule from the relations of master and enslaved person, husband and wife, and parent and child.
He controversially argues that some people are slaves by nature and discusses property, acquisition, exchange and household management. Natural acquisition serves household needs, while unlimited accumulation of money mistakes a means for an end.
Book II: Earlier theories and constitutions
Aristotle evaluates proposed arrangements, beginning with Plato’s Republic. He argues that making property, spouses and children common can weaken responsibility and affection, and that a city requires plurality rather than complete unity.
He examines Plato’s Laws and the schemes of Phaleas and Hippodamus before comparing Sparta, Crete and Carthage. Institutions are judged by their purpose, internal consistency, vulnerability to corruption and performance in practice.
The Book ends with discussions of notable lawgivers. Political inquiry should learn from both designs and accumulated experience.
Book III: Citizenship and constitutional rule
A citizen in the fullest sense shares in deliberative or judicial office. The identity of a city depends primarily upon its constitution, which organises offices and establishes the ruling authority.
The virtue of a good citizen is relative to the constitution, while the virtue of a good person has a more complete standard. In the best regime these may coincide especially in the ruler.
Correct constitutions serve the common interest: kingship, aristocracy and constitutional government. Their deviations are tyranny, oligarchy and democracy when these serve rulers’ private interests. Aristotle examines competing claims based on wealth, freedom, number and virtue.
The Book concludes with forms of kingship and the problem of whether law or an outstanding individual should rule.
Book IV: Varieties of constitutions and the mixed regime
Political science should study the best constitution, the best possible under circumstances, how regimes arise and how they can be preserved. Aristotle distinguishes several forms of democracy and oligarchy rather than treating each as one uniform type.
Constitutional government mixes democratic and oligarchic principles. A large middle class supports moderation because it is less exposed to the ambitions associated with extreme wealth and the resentments associated with poverty.
Aristotle also classifies deliberative, executive and judicial elements and shows how different methods of selection alter a regime’s character.
Book V: Revolution and preservation
Political conflict arises because groups agree that justice involves equality but disagree about which similarities and differences matter. Democrats emphasise free status; oligarchs emphasise wealth and inequality.
Revolutions are driven by profit, honour, fear, contempt, disproportionate growth, election intrigue and personal rivalry. Small changes can accumulate until constitutional balance collapses.
Regimes are preserved through lawfulness, moderation and treatment that avoids unnecessary humiliation or exclusion. Even monarchies and tyrannies require strategies of preservation, though the methods of tyranny reveal its corrupt purpose.
Book VI: Democratic and oligarchic institutions
Different populations sustain different kinds of democracy. Agricultural citizens may favour moderate participation, while urban groups with more continuous availability can support more direct rule.
Aristotle examines offices necessary to a city and methods of appointment. Durable institutions must match social conditions and balance the claims of competing groups.
Oligarchies likewise vary according to wealth qualifications and concentration of power. Stability requires attention to defence, finance, markets, public order and accountability.
Book VII: The best life and the best city
The best constitution must be evaluated through the best life. External goods and bodily goods are instruments, while goods of the soul deserve priority. Happiness consists in excellent activity rather than conquest or domination.
Aristotle considers population, territory, access to sea, military character and civic functions. The ideal city should be self-sufficient yet governable, with citizens capable of knowing one another and judging offices.
He assigns functions relating to food, crafts, defence, property, religion and deliberation, while excluding several necessary workers from full citizenship. Property is privately held but should be used generously.
The later chapters discuss marriage, childbirth and stages of education as preparation for civic virtue.
Book VIII: Public education
Education must be a public concern because the city has one shared end and a constitution cannot survive without corresponding habits. Citizens should not be trained solely for private advantage or narrow utility.
Aristotle considers reading, writing, gymnastics, drawing and music. Physical training should avoid brutalising the young, while music can cultivate judgement, character and the worthy use of leisure.
Education for freedom differs from training performed merely for employment. The surviving text concludes during the discussion of musical modes, instruments and appropriate audiences.